Avoiding Salt to prevent or treat high blood pressure and other salt-related conditions – detailed answer
Last updated: September, 2004
This answer is brought to you by many of the Australian nutrition professionals who regularly contribute to a nutrition email discussion group.
The following questions and answers explain how people can reduce salt consumption to:
(a) Treat such conditions as high blood pressure, swollen ankles ('idiopathic oedema'), premenstrual syndrome, carpal tunnel syndrome and the severe vertigo attacks of Meniere's syndrome; and
(b) Help to prevent these conditions, especially high blood pressure, from occurring in the first place.
Explanatory Notes
Some definitions and explanations might help with an understanding of the material in this FAQ. 'Salt' is sodium chloride. Both the sodium and chloride components are essential in the diet, but they are readily available in most naturally-occurring foods, so addition of salt in cooking or at the table is rarely required. Because many of the health effects of salt are attributed to sodium, reference is often made to 'sodium intake' or 'sodium excretion'. Sodium intake/excretion is usually measured in milligrams (mg) or millimoles (mmol) : 1 mmol of sodium equals 23 mg . The Recommended Dietary Intake for salt in Australia is expressed as a range from 40-100 mmol (= 920-2,300 mg) of sodium. This corresponds to 2.3-5.9 g of salt.
Sodium is lost from the body mainly in the urine (some is also lost in sweat, but this is of little significance unless you work or exercise hard in a hot environment). This means that your salt intake can be reasonably accurately estimated in a medical laboratory by determining how much sodium there is in your urine. Studies have shown that most people in developed nations have daily salt intakes well above the recommended maximum (100 mmol of sodium).
1. Can high blood pressure be prevented by diet?
Although a small minority of cases of high blood pressure (also known as 'hypertension') are due to other diseases that may be curable by surgery or medication, most hypertension is now being attributed to inappropriate diet and lifestyle. By following the advice in this FAQ you will vastly reduce the risk of developing high blood pressure, which is the most important risk factor for stroke, and a major risk factor for heart disease.
To reduce the risk of diet-related illness, including heart disease and stroke, our diet should be based on the Dietary Guidelines for Australians (see Appendix). Those of special importance to the prevention of hypertension are Guideline 1.1 "Eat plenty of vegetables (including legumes) and fruits"; Guideline 1.4 "Include milks, yoghurts, cheeses and/or alternatives. Reduced fat varieties should be chosen where possible"; and Guideline 1.7 "Choose foods low in salt". Following these guidelines, and guideline 2.3 “Limit your alcohol intake if you choose to drink”, will help you to control your weight as well as your blood pressure. [Note that if you choose to drink alcohol, a limit of two standard alcoholic drinks (e.g. two 285 mL beers, two small glasses of wine) per day is now generally considered to be compatible with good health for men, while women should restrict their alcohol intake to one standard drink per day].
Contrary to popular belief, the evidence suggests that stress at work has no permanent effect on blood pressure. However, some people adopt unhealthy approaches to coping with stress, and bad stress management is associated with high blood pressure. If stress management is necessary, it would be worthwhile seeking professional advice.
In addition to eating according to the dietary guidelines and (if appropriate) stress management, it is also extremely important to be physically active. The national guidelines for Australians recommend at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity on most, and preferably all, days. In addition, if you can, also enjoy some vigorous exercise for health and fitness, if you can. For more information on the value of activity in general health, see the FAQ in this series:
http://www.nutritionaustralia.org/Food_Facts/FAQ/activity_for_general_health_faq.asp
Change of diet and lifestyle may not always completely reverse hypertension, even if the hypertension was salt-induced in the first place. But even if it does not cure the problem, lifestyle and diet modification will at least help to prevent further deterioration (in much the same way as giving up smoking won't cure emphysema, but it will usually halt further deterioration in lung function). Reducing salt intake and being more physically active may also allow a reduction in the need for medication.
2. Is it really worth the effort, when only about one in six adults has high blood pressure?
It is well worth the effort, because the prevalence of high blood pressure rises with age. If you do nothing to prevent it, you have about a 50% chance of developing high blood pressure by retirement age, and the risk rises steeply after that. A study that was conducted on thousands of people for 50 years in a US town ( Framingham , Massachusetts ) found a lifetime risk of high blood pressure of 90%, which is uncomfortably close to 100%.
3. How important is it to follow the salt guideline ('Choose foods low in salt')?
Many societies whose diets are (or were until recently) more 'natural' than the current typical Western diet have very low salt intakes. Such populations include tribal Australian Aborigines, the Bushmen of the Kalahari and the Yanomama Indians of Brazil. One striking characteristic of these societies is that the adults do not suffer from increasing blood pressure with age. However, when they adopt Western lifestyles and eat far more salt, their blood pressure rises.
People who live in developed nations such as Australia eat far more salt than tribal societies, and also more than our ancestors ate during the evolution of Homo sapiens . As mentioned in the Introduction, most people in Western nations consume considerably more than the recommended maximum daily intake of 100 mmol of sodium. Average blood pressure is also much higher and it rises with age for most people in developed societies, and in people in developing nations who have adopted Western lifestyles and diets.
There is clear evidence that a rise of blood pressure with age is inevitable in many of the individuals who adopt the salt intake of an industrial society. Such people are described as 'salt-sensitive', and a large study conducted in 32 countries indicated that the majority of people are salt-sensitive. Adhering to the dietary guidelines, especially the salt guideline, and being physically active are the major lifestyle changes we can make to protect against high blood pressure and the diseases associated with it.
4. How can I tell if I am salt-sensitive?
There is no validated test for salt sensitivity. As mentioned in the answer to Question 1, when high blood pressure fails to improve at a lower salt intake, it is still possible that excessive salt intake contributed to the original rise. Animal experiments (including experiments involving high salt intake to induce high blood pressure, followed by a period of low salt intake) have shown that removing the cause does not always reverse the high blood pressure.
5. The salt guideline recommends choosing foods low in salt. How can I identify low-salt foods?
By definition, in Australia and New Zealand any food that is claimed to be 'low-salt' must contain no more than 120 milligrams of sodium per 100 grams of food (120 mg/100 g), and this must be clearly stated on the label. Most processed foods have far more salt than this—for example, most breads, breakfast cereals and savoury biscuits contain at least 500 mg/100 g; some processed cheeses have 1,500 mg/100 g; while meat and fish preserved with salt usually have between 1,200 and 5,000 mg/100 g. By carefully reading food labels you can identify those processed foods that are truly 'low-salt'.
For practical purposes every fresh food in its natural state (unsalted) is also suitable. It is true that the sodium content can exceed 120 mg/100 g in a few natural foods such as eggs, kidneys and some seafoods—specifically crustacea (e.g. crabmeat, prawns, lobster), and molluscs (including oysters, mussels, squid)—but a balanced diet of low-salt foods containing typical quantities of these foods would still be a low-salt diet.
6. This means a big change in my shopping list—why does the salt guideline have to be so strict?
Human experiments have not been done to see if a deliberate increase in salt intake would cause high blood pressure (such experiments would be neither practical nor ethical), but chimpanzees (our closest animal relatives) develop high blood pressure on a diet of cereal biscuits called Monkey Chow, with a sodium content of 240 mg/100 g. This is only twice the level of sodium permitted in low-salt foods for human consumption. Studies comparing blood pressure and habitual salt intake in different human populations indicate that the margin of safety may also be rather narrow for people.
7. Doesn't the salt guideline cut out a lot of low-fat processed foods and tasty dips with 'good' oils such as olive and canola?
Most commercial dips, mayonnaises and salad dressings use salt as a flavouring agent, but supermarkets do carry some low-salt varieties, many of which are based on canola oil (one of the health-promoting oils). Salad dressings and dips can also be made at home without salt, by including alternatives such as vinegar and spices.
8. Is there a short answer to the problem of finding low-salt bread?
In most well-populated districts there is usually at least one baker prepared to supply salt-free bread (an easier assignment than low-salt bread), and the development of bread-making machines has made it convenient to bake salt-free bread at home. Bread freezes well, and the freezer can be stocked with a backup supply.
9. Having become used to the taste of salted bread, I now find unsalted bread to be lacking in flavour. Is there some way of improving the taste of low-salt or salt-free bread?
Many people find that using one of the brands of salt substitute containing potassium chloride gives bread the flavour they like, but this is a matter of personal taste—much the same as whether a cup of tea needs sugar. Packets of potassium chloride carry a compulsory warning that they may be unsuitable without medical advice (because some diseases and a few drugs may reduce the body's tolerance for extra potassium), so check with your doctor if you are in any doubt about the safety of extra potassium in your diet.
Some people find that sourdough breads (which contain vinegar) will satisfy the tastebuds' craving for salt.
10. How can I tell if I am avoiding salt successfully? Do I have to count milligrams of sodium?
It isn't necessary to 'count milligrams' in order to reduce your sodium intake. By following the advice in this FAQ you will ensure that your sodium intake is low. If you are avoiding salt as a medical treatment, there is a very good method available for determining your actual sodium intake—your doctor can tell you how to make a 24-hour urine collection and will then send it to a medical laboratory for analysis. Sodium excretion under 50 mmol/day for a man, or 40 mmol/day for a woman, indicates successful control of your salt intake.
Note that the low end of the range for the recommended intake of sodium is 40 mmol per day (with the recommended maximum intake being 100 mmol). This does not imply that daily salt intakes below 40 mmol are likely to be harmful—the lower end of the recommended range is based on what is likely to be achievable (among a population that is generally 'hooked on salt') rather than on the actual minimal requirement. In Australia , the 'diagnostic level' (i.e. below which harm is reasonably likely to occur) is set at 10 mmol per day. Adherence to the Dietary Guidelines for Australians and the other advice in this FAQ will not lead to sodium levels as low as this in adults with a normal appetite.
11. Why has the message to reduce fat intake been fairly successful, while the message about salt reduction seems to have been largely overlooked?
It appears that many people have at least heard the salt message—for example, more than half the respondents in a Hobart survey in 1995 claimed they 'seldom or never' cooked with salt and 'seldom or never' added salt at the table.
Nevertheless, 24-hour urinary sodium excretion rates showed that most of these people still had high salt intakes. This is because many foods supply about 75% of the salt in our diet (salt is widely used to compensate for loss of flavour due to processing), and useful change is impossible without reading food labels for sodium content. Supply is a function of demand, and so far there has been only a low demand for low-salt foods. This low demand probably reflects a general lack of understanding that the high salt content of most processed foods is the main reason for our high salt intakes.
12. If salt can be bad for us, why do so many people like salty foods?
People who like salty foods have something in common with cigarette smokers—they acquired the habit when they were young and find it very difficult to overcome a lifelong habit. But overcoming the salt habit should be easier than quitting smoking, because salt is less addictive than nicotine. The palate adapts to a lower salt intake; within weeks, standard (i.e. highly salted) processed foods begin to taste too salty.
13. What about the animals that trek vast distances to a salt lick? Did they just acquire the habit, or do they really need the extra salt?
Some animals need the extra salt, because they depend on plants that are virtually salt-free in certain habitats (the sodium content of grass in some places is less than 1 mg/100 g). Many other plant-eating animals have enough salt already in their diet—for example, mice can multiply in plague proportions during the Australian harvest, eating nothing but wheat grains with a sodium content of 3 mg/100 g.
The Yanomama Indians are the most salt-free humans on Earth, and they detest foods with added salt when they first encounter them. However, like us, when they are repeatedly exposed to it they have no difficulty in acquiring a taste for salt.
When you take into account that human breast milk—with a sodium content of only 14 mg/100 g—supplies enough salt for rapid growth as well as day-to-day needs, it is clear that the guideline to choose low-salt foods (with a sodium content up to 120 mg/100 g) provides a generous surplus to meet our nutritional needs for salt.
14. But do low-salt foods provide a generous surplus of sodium if I sweat freely?
All the available data on the sodium content of sweat refer to people eating typical Western diets and so usually have sodium excretion rates well above 50 mmol/day. These people—the vast majority of the population—need to replace heavy sweat losses with sodium-containing foods or by using sports drinks, which are available commercially or can be made at home. An FAQ in this series explains how you can make your own inexpensive sports drink:
http://www.nutritionaustralia.org/Food_Facts/FAQ/sports_drinks_faq.asp
People who need to follow the salt guideline very strictly—for example to prevent the vertigo attacks of Meniere's syndrome—can get a lot of practical help from the book on the Salt Skip Program (and also from Salt Skip News, which is part of the newsletter) of the Queensland Hypertension Association. Details are provided under Further Reading at the end of this FAQ. Such people often have 24-hour sodium excretion rates of 30 mmol or less. The Salt Skip Program does not specifically recommend sports drinks for these people after heavy sweat loss, as long as they are feeling well. Their sweat is far less salty at these low sodium excretion rates, and there is less likelihood of suffering the 'hyponatraemia' (a condition of low sodium level in the blood, also called 'water intoxication') that can affect other people who drink only water to replace heavy sweat losses.
The Yanomama Indians sweat freely in a tropical rainforest, but are fit and healthy without access to sports drinks. In fact there are several salt-free societies with sodium excretion rates between 10 and 30 mmol/day who live in tropical habitats and sweat profusely without suffering harmful effects.
However, because the body needs time to adjust to altered sodium intake, it may be prudent for endurance sportspeople not to change suddenly from a high to a low salt diet while in training for a major event.
It is also worth noting that commercial sports drinks are only lightly salted and fit the definition of 'low-salt' when made up with water (sodium less than 120 mg/100 g of reconstituted drink). So each litre of reconstituted sports drink will typically add only about 10-20 mmol to your daily intake of sodium.
15. Are there any other medical conditions that are helped by low salt intake?
Yes, there are about a dozen such medical conditions. These include heart failure (discussed in more detail below), all the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, the swollen ankles of travel oedema and idiopathic oedema, carpal tunnel syndrome, and the severe vertigo attacks of Meniere's syndrome. Low salt intake can also help with the prevention and treatment of conditions exacerbated by loss of calcium in the urine (kidney and bladder stones, osteoporosis) and reduces the risk of kidney failure and stomach cancer , and the severity of asthma.
Low salt intake can also improve the way some drugs work, e.g. if lithium carbonate is being taken, or if drugs to combat high blood pressure have been prescribed (see below for more detail on both these situations). But you should always inform your doctor if any of these situations apply and you have (or are intending to adopt) a low-salt diet.
HEART FAILURE
Both heart failure and high salt intake cause fluid retention, and survival from severe heart failure may depend on severely restricting salt. Diuretics will probably also be prescribed (under very close medical supervision, as explained in the answer to the next question).
LITHIUM CARBONATE
Low salt intake makes lithium carbonate more effective when used as a treatment for bipolar disorder or depression, and the patient needs a lower dose. Following the salt guideline ('Choose foods low in salt') can therefore save money and may also reduce side-effects. However, don't avoid salt while taking lithium without your doctor's full knowledge and agreement; the dose of lithium must be closely supervised to minimise the risk of side-effects.
DRUGS FOR REDUCING BLOOD PRESSURE
Most drugs prescribed to treat high blood pressure become more effective if you adopt the salt guideline, and your doctor may have to reduce the dose of the drug , or in some cases discontinue its use altogether. This applies especially to a class of drugs called 'ACE inhibitors'.
So adhering to the salt guideline can save money on expensive drugs and also assist in reducing the risk of adverse side-effects. However, you should never reduce your prescribed dose of drug without your doctor's approval, and if you do follow the salt guideline, always make sure your doctor knows that you have a low salt intake if you are taking drugs to combat high blood pressure.
16. Are there medical situations when the salt guideline may be inappropriate?
Yes, there are several conditions that need special consideration with respect to ensuring adequate salt intake. These include pregnancy; when diuretics are prescribed; following episodes of diarrhoea or vomiting; and in some other specific circumstances as follows. If any of these situations apply to you, check with your doctor before altering your salt intake.
PREGNANCY
The medical consensus is that the usual salt intake at the onset of pregnancy should be continued throughout the pregnancy, unless the expectant mother is given medical advice to change it. Women who have followed the salt guideline before they were pregnant should continue to meet the guideline. But in the absence of specific medical advice to the contrary, it is recommended that expectant mothers make no change in salt intake until after the baby is born.
DIURETICS
Doctors routinely prescribe diuretics for salt-related illnesses, particularly for hypertension, but also for fluid retention in all its forms (such as swollen ankles, premenstrual syndrome, Meniere's syndrome, and carpal tunnel syndrome). These diuretic prescription drugs make the kidneys eliminate salt and water faster than normal, thereby increasing salt needs. Prescription diuretics can induce sodium depletion from the blood ('hyponatraemia'), meaning that sodium deficiency can be a side-effect of taking these drugs. Hyponatraemia may occur at any salt intake, but diuretics are safest at high salt intakes and most risky at low salt intakes. Following the dietary guideline for salt very strictly can reduce your sodium excretion to well under 50 mmol/day, and neither the drug companies nor the Salt Skip Program (described in Further Reading) are recommending diuretics at such a low sodium excretion rate, except in very serious illnesses such as severe heart failure (in which patients are kept under very close medical supervision, with periodic blood tests).
DIARRHOEA AND VOMITING
Diarrhoea and vomiting in severe gastroenteritis may lead to a loss of salt that needs to be replaced in the diet. Patients suffering more serious diseases such as cholera and typhoid will receive salt replacement as a part of routine hospital management.
OTHER SERIOUS HEALTH PROBLEMS
Extensive burns and very severe and extensive skin diseases may cause salt loss. Some people with cystic fibrosis have an abnormally salty sweat, while advanced kidney disease and Addison's disease are associated with excessive loss of salt, which has to be replaced with extra sodium in the diet. By the time these patients are ill enough to require a lot of extra salt they have usually become aware of the diagnosis and of their special needs, and many are in hospital.
17. How can I skip salt when I am eating away from home?
Book a restaurant table at least a day ahead, and ask if they can serve a meal without any salt (a 'low-salt meal' is a description that allows too much latitude). Most Australian restaurants and hotels are very obliging, but the staff are usually less well-informed than the customer (remember to ask for no olives and no cheese, etc, in the salad). If you dine early, the staff will have more time to attend to a special meal.
Most airlines will provide salt-free meals if requested when booking the ticket, and you can ensure the availability of salt-free bread when on holiday by taking your own bread-making machine (e.g. in a campervan, or when staying in a hotel or motel room with a kitchenette).
Your friends and relatives may also do their best to accommodate your request for low-salt food, but the vast majority will know less about it than you do and so will need help. In all cases you can take your own bread if you want to accompany the meal with low-salt bread.
18. If a blood test shows my blood sodium is normal, why should I reduce my salt intake?
All that a 'normal' result from a blood test shows is that you are getting at least enough salt—it doesn't measure how much more you are getting than you actually need. In good health the kidneys keep the blood sodium constant within very narrow limits, and they do this by disposing of all surplus sodium into the urine. So while a blood test might show a normal blood level of sodium, a 24-hour urine collection might indicate that your intake is excessive and needs to be reduced.
19. Any excess salt in my diet is obviously excreted, so how can it be harmful?
There is direct experimental evidence (from organ transplants) that the kidney can raise blood pressure, although the possible mechanisms are still being investigated. Although this raised blood pressure allows for faster salt excretion in response to increased salt intake—especially when kidney function declines with age—this hypertensive adaptation may be quite dangerous.
20. Is it true that the problem with salt is actually the chemicals that are added to it, and that natural sea salt is not only safe but is also an important part of a healthy diet?
That claim is found only in the commercial literature promoting sea salt. Completely contradicting the claimed health benefits of sea salt, an important study in the medical literature found that rats develop high blood pressure even more readily when fed high levels of sea salt than with similar levels of ordinary salt. So the evidence suggests that sea salt is at least as harmful to health as excessive sodium in any other form.
21. How can I get enough iodine without using salt?
Iodine is an essential trace element that is lacking in many Australian soils, so our food supply may be marginal in iodine. Deficiency of iodine causes many health problems, including goitre and lowered intelligence. For more on this see the FAQ on Iodine at: http://www.nutritionaustralia.org/Food_Facts/FAQ/what_is_iodine_faq.asp
For many years, iodine was added to much of the table salt used in Australia in an attempt to improve the iodine status of all Australians. However, not only have salt intakes probably declined over the last two decades in Australia, it is also not compulsory for salt sold in this country (or used in processed foods) to be iodised. Surveys in Australia and New Zealand are revealing declining intakes of iodine, so identifying alternative sources is very important.
Objections to iodised salt
It would be fairly easy to simply add iodine to all table salt sold in Australia. However, there are problems with relying on iodised salt again, including:
• Many people have given up adding salt to their food at the table
• Recommending that people ‘use iodised salt' would also mean contradicting the Dietary Guidelines (which do not advocate adding salt)
However, many processed foods have added salt, and iodised salt could be used in some of these foods. For example, most bakeries in Tasmania agreed recently to use only iodised salt in bread.
Other food sources
Sea fish and other seafood are a good natural source of iodine, whether fresh or canned, and two or three meals of fish per week are recommended. However, canned seafood will not comply with the Australian dietary guidelines unless it is low in salt (sodium 120 mg/100 g or less).
Iodine supplements
Some authorities suggest that supplementary iodine in the diet may be necessary to ensure an adequate intake for everybody. However, excessive iodine intake is also dangerous. Iodine supplements should not be taken unless recommended by a doctor or dietitian and the intake should be very carefully monitored.
The recommended dietary intake (RDI) in micrograms per day is 150 for men and 120 for women, increasing to 175 in pregnancy and 200 while breast-feeding.
At present, there doesn't seem to be enough demand for pharmaceutical companies to produce tablets containing only iodine. Until a demand is demonstrated, iodine can be bought in solutions of known concentration and the appropriate dose can be measured.
Patients who need multivitamin preparations (for example to treat macular degeneration of the retina or to compensate for dietary restrictions when managing conditions like irritable bowel syndrome) can choose one of the dozen or so brands containing iodine. One tablet or capsule usually supplies 150 micrograms, and seldom less than 100 micrograms.
In summary, this is a period of change in emphasis on nutrient intakes—including a need to increase iodine consumption while salt intake is reduced. Eventually, legislation can provide for iodine to be added to appropriate processed foods. Meanwhile, individuals who have received medical/dietetic advice to take supplementary iodine can use iodine in solution until a suitable tablet reappears on the market.
APPENDIX: DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AUSTRALIANS
1. Enjoy a wide variety of nutritious foods.
1.1 Eat plenty of vegetables (including legumes) and fruits.
1.2 Eat plenty of cereals (including breads, rice, pasta, and noodles), preferably wholegrain
1.3 Include lean meat fish, poultry and/or alternatives.
1.4 Include milks, yoghurts, cheeses and/or alternatives. Reduced fat varieties should be chosen where possible.
1.5 Drink plenty of water.
1.6 Limit saturated fat and moderate total fat intake.
1.7 Choose foods low in salt.
1.8 Limit your alcohol intake if you choose to drink.
1.9 Consume only moderate amounts of sugars and foods containing added sugars.
2. Prevent weight gain: be physically active and eat according to your energy needs.
3. Care for your food: prepare and store it safely.
4. Encourage and support breastfeeding.
FURTHER READING AND COOKBOOKS
SALT MATTERS: A CONSUMER GUIDE by Dr Trevor Beard (Lothian Books, 2004)
This self-help consumer guide updates and enlarges the comprehensive literature of the Salt Skip Program of the Queensland Hypertension Association and covers all aspects of following the salt guideline, with detailed advice on shopping to make the most of the new food labels, and many other topics not covered by the low-salt cookbooks.
Many low salt cookbooks concentrate on only one dietary guideline. The three books listed below follow all the dietary guidelines. Two are for home cooks and the third is for institutional caterers.
1. TASTE OF LIFE by Julie Stafford (Viking, 1993)
2. SIMPLY HEALTHY - The Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute Cookbook by Sally James (Ken Fin Books, 1999)
3. COOKING FOR PLENTY - A Healthy Heart Recipe Guide for up to 50 people (National Heart Foundation of Australia, 1991)
Note: Julie Stafford's Taste of Life is now out of print after two decades, but is worth borrowing from a library . In each of these books you will find a few recipes with one high-salt ingredient such as modified soy sauce or Thai fish sauce, and the dish may not be low in salt unless the high-salt ingredient is very accurately measured. All three books refer to modified soy sauce as ‘low salt', ‘low sodium' or ‘reduced salt', but this is incorrect and misleading. The sodium content of ordinary soy sauce is between 6,000 and 8,000 mg/100 g and modified soy sauce still exceeds 3,000 mg/100 g, whereas the upper limit for low salt foods in the Food Standards Code is 120 mg/100 g and the limit for reduced salt foods is 600 mg/100 g. The salt guideline is to choose foods low in salt.
SALT SKIP PROGRAM
The book Salt Matters and a newsletter on all aspects of following the salt guideline are available from the Salt Skip Program of the Queensland Hypertension Association (QHA). QHA is Australia's only non-profit support group for people with hypertension, and has many members in Australia and New Zealand who join to obtain the Salt Skip Program to treat other conditions such as fluid retention.
The postal address for this program is:
Queensland Hypertension Association, PO Box 193, Holland Park QLD 4121.
Last updated: September, 2004
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